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A Theory of Justice
John Rawls, Otfried Höffe, Joost den Haan • 2013
The text provides a comprehensive commentary on John Rawls's A Theory of Justice, a seminal work in ethics and political philosophy. It explores Rawls's foundational concepts like "justice as fairness," the two principles of justice (equal basic liberties and the difference principle), and the "original position" with its "veil of ignorance" as a thought experiment for deriving just principles. The commentary critically examines Rawls's method of "reflective equilibrium," his fundamental objections to utilitarianism, and the challenges in applying his theory, particularly regarding intergenerational and ecological justice, and the congruence of the good and the just. It highlights revisions made by Rawls and discusses his views on democracy and the duty of justice, concluding with a critique from a globalized perspective.
Machiavelli's 'The Prince' is a controversial treatise offering stark advice to rulers on acquiring and maintaining power in a politically unstable Italy. Written in 1513, it reflects Machiavelli's deep experience in Florentine diplomacy and his observations of historical figures like Cesare Borgia. The book argues that successful governance often necessitates actions considered immoral, emphasizing the importance of native military strength, prudent use of cruelty, and shrewd diplomacy. Machiavelli controversially suggests that a prince should strive to be feared rather than loved, if he cannot be both, and must be willing to adapt his methods to changing fortunes. It remains a foundational text in political philosophy.
John Stuart Mill's *On Liberty* explores the crucial balance between individual freedom and societal control, asserting that society can only legitimately interfere with an individual's actions for self-protection, to prevent harm to others. The essay champions absolute freedom of thought and discussion, arguing that suppressing opinions hinders the discovery of truth and vital debate. It passionately defends individuality and "experiments of living," deeming them essential for human happiness and social progress. Mill cautions against the "tyranny of the majority" and excessive government intervention, which can stifle individual development and lead to societal stagnation, advocating instead for the broadest possible scope for personal liberty.
Plato's *Republic* explores the nature of justice by constructing an ideal State ruled by philosopher-kings. The dialogue systematically refutes conventional and cynical definitions of justice, arguing for its intrinsic value. It outlines a rigorous education system for Guardians, advocating for censorship and communal living, and proposes a stratified society based on individual aptitudes. Socrates delineates the decline of states through timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny, mirroring the degradation of the individual soul. The work concludes with proofs of the soul's immortality and the ultimate rewards of a just life, emphasizing the necessity of philosophy for true societal and personal happiness.
Thomas Hobbes's *Leviathan* (1651) argues for the necessity of an absolute sovereign to prevent humanity's descent into a "state of nature," characterized by perpetual war of all against all. He contends that individuals, driven by fear of death and desire for peace, enter a social contract, surrendering their natural rights to a powerful, indivisible Sovereign. This Leviathan, whether a monarch or assembly, enforces laws and maintains order, as justice and property only exist within a civil society. Hobbes extensively details human psychology, the formation of reason, and the dangers of divided power—especially religious authority—concluding that peace and salvation depend on subjects' absolute obedience to the Christian sovereign, who is also the supreme pastor.