Quick Summary
Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan (1651) argues for the necessity of an absolute sovereign to prevent humanity's descent into a "state of nature," characterized by perpetual war of all against all. He contends that individuals, driven by fear of death and desire for peace, enter a social contract, surrendering their natural rights to a powerful, indivisible Sovereign. This Leviathan, whether a monarch or assembly, enforces laws and maintains order, as justice and property only exist within a civil society. Hobbes extensively details human psychology, the formation of reason, and the dangers of divided power—especially religious authority—concluding that peace and salvation depend on subjects' absolute obedience to the Christian sovereign, who is also the supreme pastor.
Key Ideas
The "state of nature" is a condition of war of every man against every man, where life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
Human beings are driven by a restless desire for power after power, ceasing only in death.
Reason dictates "Laws of Nature" that compel men to seek peace and lay down their natural rights.
A social contract establishes an absolute, indivisible Sovereign (the Leviathan) to enforce laws and ensure peace and security.
The Christian Sovereign must hold supreme authority in both civil and ecclesiastical matters to prevent societal dissolution.
Introduction to Hobbes's Political Philosophy
Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan, written amidst the English Civil War, challenged traditional divine right while advocating for absolute sovereignty. Its philosophy is polarizing, appealing to both liberal ideas of self-interest and anti-constitutionalist demands for undivided power. Hobbes's intellectual journey, influenced by Thucydides and Euclid, shaped his theory, culminating in Leviathan to secure accommodation with the new regime.
The treatise's enduring relevance stems from its unsettling ability to appeal to both modern liberal concerns (such as self-interest and consent) and anti-constitutionalist demands (such as opposing the division or limitation of political power).
Of Man: Sense, Imagination, Reason, and Passions
Hobbes presents humans as mechanistic beings, where all thoughts originate from sense—the physical impression of external objects. Imagination is decaying sense, and memory is much memory. Reason is merely reckoning or calculation. Passions like desire and aversion are internal motions. Felicity is a continuous pursuit of desires, not a final rest.
The Natural Condition of Mankind (State of War)
Hobbes posits a natural condition of mankind characterized by fundamental equality, leading to competition, diffidence, and the pursuit of glory. Without a common power to restrain individuals, this state is one of perpetual "war of every man against every man," rendering life "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" due to constant fear of violent death.
Consequently, there is continual fear and danger of violent death, resulting in a life that is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.
Laws of Nature and Covenants (Social Contract)
To escape the state of war, reason dictates Laws of Nature. The fundamental law is to seek peace. This requires individuals to lay down their Right of Nature (absolute self-preservation), provided others do the same. This mutual transfer of rights constitutes a covenant, or social contract, forming the basis of society.
The Commonwealth and Sovereign Power
A Commonwealth, or Leviathan, is created when individuals covenant to confer all their power and strength upon one Sovereign (a man or assembly). This Sovereign represents the multitude, and everyone acknowledges themselves as the author of its actions. The Sovereign holds ultimate, indivisible power for collective peace and defense.
Rights and Limitations of the Sovereign
The Sovereign possesses absolute, indivisible rights, including judging what is necessary for peace, making laws, establishing property, and deciding war. Subjects cannot change the government or justly accuse the Sovereign, as they are authors of its actions. This authority, though absolute, is essential for stability and preventing a return to the state of nature.
Liberty of Subjects and Causes of Commonwealth Dissolution
Subjects' liberty exists in areas where the Sovereign has not prescribed rules. Individuals retain the right to self-defense against force. Hobbes identifies internal weaknesses like divided sovereignty, seditious doctrines (e.g., private judgment of good/evil, subjection of Sovereign to law), and the imitation of ancient popular governments as causes of commonwealth dissolution.
The Office of the Sovereign Representative
The Sovereign's primary duty is to ensure the safety and contentment of the people, guided by the Law of Nature. This involves preserving sovereign rights, instructing citizens in their duties, administering equal justice, imposing taxes fairly based on consumption, providing for the needy, and enacting perspicuous and needful laws.
The Kingdom of God by Nature and Scripture
Hobbes examines God's Natural Kingdom (governing through reason) and Prophetic Kingdom (governing Israel). God's right of sovereignty stems from His irresistible power, not creation, justifying affliction regardless of sin. Worship, both natural and arbitrary, is a public expression of honor, necessitating uniformity within the Commonwealth.
Ecclesiastical Power and the Christian Commonwealth
Christ's kingdom is "not of this world," meaning His ministers have no coercive power, only a duty to preach and persuade. Christian Sovereigns are the ultimate Supreme Pastors in their dominions, possessing both civil and ecclesiastical authority. Subjects are bound to obey their Sovereign's laws, as they embody the Church in that state.
Spiritual Darkness from Misinterpretation of Scripture
Hobbes describes the "Kingdom of Darkness" as a confederacy of deceivers, primarily from the Roman Church, who misinterpret Scripture to gain power. Key errors include equating the present Church with God's Kingdom, claiming clerical supremacy (jure divino), converting consecration into "conjuration" (like Transubstantiation), and asserting the soul's natural immortality leading to doctrines like Purgatory.
Darkness from Vain Philosophy and Traditions
Hobbes critiques vain philosophy, particularly Aristotle's metaphysics and scholasticism, for promoting absurd doctrines like abstract essences and incorporeal substances. These errors, alongside fabulous traditions (e.g., Dæmonology, image worship, saints' canonization), are used to justify priestly power, manipulate subjects, and undermine the Civil Sovereign's authority, perpetuating spiritual darkness.
The Papacy is defined as the Ghost of the deceased Roman Empire, sitting crowned upon its grave, and the Latin used in its public acts is the ghost of the Old Roman Language.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the "state of nature" according to Hobbes?
Without a common power, humanity lives in a "war of every man against every man." This condition, driven by equality and self-interest, results in a life that is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
What is the purpose of the **Sovereign**?
The Sovereign's purpose is to establish and maintain peace and defense by holding absolute, indivisible power. This prevents society from reverting to the chaotic "state of nature," ensuring stability through enforced laws and protection.
How does Hobbes view the relationship between **Civil Law** and the **Laws of Nature**?
They are mutually inclusive. Laws of Nature are moral precepts of reason, which become binding Civil Laws when enforced by the Sovereign. Obedience to Civil Law is itself a fundamental Law of Nature.
What is the single most important article of **Christian Faith** for salvation?
The sole article of faith necessary for salvation is believing that JESUS IS THE CHRIST. This encompasses His future eternal reign and the restoration of eternal life, serving as the foundation for other Christian doctrines.
How does Hobbes address the potential conflict between obeying God and obeying the **Civil Sovereign**?
He distinguishes internal faith, which cannot be commanded, from external obedience. If a Sovereign's command doesn't directly risk eternal damnation, it should be obeyed. Christ's kingdom is not of this world, so civil peace is paramount.